Sindhi language Source: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sindhi_language

Sindhi
Sindhī سِنڌِي‎ सिन्धी
Sindhi written in Perso-Arabic script and Devanagari
Pronunciation	[sɪndʱiː]
Native to	Pakistan India
Region	Sindh and parts of Balochistan, Kutch and Barmer
Ethnicity	Sindhis
Native speakers	37 million (2011–2023)[a]
Language family	Indo-European Indo-Iranian Indo-Aryan Northwestern Sindhic Sindhi
Early forms	Shauraseni Prakrit Apabhraṃśa (debated)[b] Early Sindhi Middle Sindhi Early Modern Sindhi
Standard forms	Standard Sindhi
Writing system	Perso-Arabic (Sindhi alphabet)[c] Devanagari[d] Latin (Roman Sindhi)[e] Historical Khojki Khudabadi Gurmukhi[f]
Signed forms	Signed Sindhi
Official status
Official language in	Pakistan Sindh India (scheduled language)
Regulated by	Sindhi Language Authority (Pakistan) National Council for Promotion of Sindhi Language (India)
Development body	Sindhi Language Authority
Language codes
ISO 639-1	sd
ISO 639-2	snd
ISO 639-3	snd
Glottolog	sind1272
Linguasphere	59-AAF-f
The proportion of people with Sindhi as their mother tongue in each Pakistani District as of the 2017 Pakistan Census
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

Sindhi (سِنڌِي‎, Sindhī, [sɪndʱiː])^[g] is an Indo-Aryan language belonging to the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family. It is primarily spoken by the Sindhi people native to the Pakistani province of Sindh, where the language has official status.^[3] It constitutes the mother tongue of over 34 million people in Pakistan, primarily concentrated in Sindh; with historical communities in neighbouring Balochistan as well. It is also spoken by 1.7 million people in India, mostly by the descendants of partition-era migrants; with it having the status of a scheduled language in the country without any state-level official status.^[1] Sindhi is primarily written in the Sindhi alphabet of the Perso-Arabic script, the sole official script for the language in Pakistan; while in India, both the Perso-Arabic and Devanagari scripts are used.

With over 37 million native speakers, Sindhi is a major South Asian language, being the most-widely spoken language in southern Pakistan^[h] and third most-widely spoken in the entirety of Pakistan (after Punjabi and Pashto). It, in terms of native speakers, ranks as the seventh most-widely spoken Indo-Aryan language, ninth most-widely spoken Indo-Iranian language and sixteenth-most widely spoken Indo-European language.^[i] The language is also geographically spread out of South Asia as it is spoken by the Sindhi diaspora, present around the world, primarily in the Gulf states, the Western world and the Far East.^[4]

Being classified under the Northwestern branch of the Indo-Aryan languages, Sindhi, apart from other Sindhic languages, is most closely related to Punjabi. It is descended from Shauraseni Prakrit, which gradually developed into Apabhraṃśa and then into Early Sindhi. Sindhi further developed during the Islamic Golden Age and the Islamic period in South Asia, expanding its vocabulary under the influence of Arabic and Persian; with the earliest written evidence of Sindhi as a language being a translation of the Quran, dated back to 883 AD.^[5] Middle Sindhi produced the language's greatest pieces of literature, including recorded forms of orally-transmitted folk tales; as well as Sufi literature, including Shah Jo Risalo, the single greatest piece of Sindhi literature, by Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai. Modern Sindhi developed and was, officially, standardised and promoted during the British colonial era, replacing Persian as the primary official language of Sindh in 1848.^[6]

Sindhi is an inflected language, with five cases for noun, three for personal pronoun, four for third-person pronoun; eleven case markers; two genders (masculine, feminine); and two numbers (singular, plural). The base of its vocabulary is derived from Sanskrit in the form of Prakrit and Apabhraṃśa, while a significant portion of its high-register speech is derived from Persian and Arabic, along with a number of recent loanwords borrowed from English; and to a lesser extent from Portuguese and French. It has also had minor influence from and on neighbouring languages such as Punjabi, Balochi, Brahui, Gujarati, and Marwari.^[7]

Sindhi has a number of dialects and an established standard form, referred to as Standard Sindhi, which is based on the dialect of Hyderabad and surrounding areas of central Sindh. The primary regulatory agency for the development and promotion of the language is the Sindhi Language Authority, an autonomous institution of the government of Sindh.^[8]

Part of a series on
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History Indus Valley Civilisation Rai dynasty Chacha dynasty Arab Sindh Soomra-Samma rule Talpurs British rule Current Era
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Regions Sindh Thar Desert Siwistan
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v t e

The name "Sindhi" is derived from the Sanskrit síndhu, the original name of the Indus River, along whose delta Sindhi is spoken.^[9] In the Bronze Age (c. 3300 – c. 1200 BCE), the primary language of this region was likely the Harappan language, but no records exist indicating when or how that language was replaced by the Indo-Aryan languages.^[10]

Like other languages of the Indo-Aryan family, Sindhi is descended from Old Indo-Aryan (Sanskrit) via Middle Indo-Aryan (Pali, secondary Prakrits, and Apabhramsha). 20th century Western scholars such as George Abraham Grierson believed that Sindhi descended specifically from the Vrācaḍa dialect of Apabhramsha (described by Markandeya as being spoken in Sindhu-deśa, corresponding to modern Sindh)^[11][12] but later work has shown this to be unclear.^[13]

The sound changes that characterise the development of Sindhi from Middle Indo-Aryan are:

• Development of implosives from geminate and initial stops (e.g. g-, -gg > ɠ); this is a highly distinctive sound change in NIA^[14]
• Shortening of geminates (e.g. MIA akkhi > Sindhi akhi "eye")^[15]
• Voicing of post-nasal consonants (e.g. MIA danta > Sindhi ɗ̣andu "tooth")^[15][16]
• Debuccalization of intervocalic -s- > -h- (shared with Saraiki and some Punjabi varieties)^[17]
• Intervocalic -l- > -r- (likely via intermediate retroflex -ḷ-), -ll- > -l-,^[18] -ḍ- > -ṛ-
• Fronting of r from medial clusters to initial (e.g. OIA dīrgha > Sindhi ḍrigho "long")^[14]

Additionally, the following retentions distinguish Sindhi from other New Indo-Aryan languages:

• Retention of MIA -ṇ-^[18]
• Retention of final short vowels -a, -i, -u,^[19] but also insertion of these into loanwords^[20]
• Retention of long vowels before geminates (more archaic than e.g. Prakrit)^[15]
• Retention of stop + r clusters but with retroflexion, e.g. tr- > ṭr-^[21][22]
• Retention of v- ^[23]

Literary attestation of early Sindhi is sparse. The earliest written evidence of Sindhi as a language can be found in a translation of the Qur’an into Sindhi dating back to 883 A.D.^[5] Historically, Isma'ili religious literature and poetry in India, as old as the 11th century CE, used a language that was closely related to Sindhi and Gujarati; at this point in time, Sindhi was not clearly established as an independent literary language. Much of this work is in the form of ginans (a kind of devotional hymn).^[24][25]

Sindhi was the first Indo-Aryan language to be in close contact with Arabic and Persian following the Umayyad conquest of Sindh in 712 CE. Arabic sources thus do mention the language of Sindh in various instances. The following excerpts are translated from The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians by Henry Miers Elliot.^[26]

The language of Sind is different than that of India. Sind is the country which is nearer the domains of the Moslims, India is farther from them.

— al-Masudi (c. 896–956 CE), The Meadows of Gold

The language of Mansúra, Multán, and those parts is Arabic and Sindian. In Makrán they use Persian and Makranic.

— Ibn Hawqal, Surat Al-Ard (977 CE)

Medieval Sindhi literature is of a primarily religious genre, comprising a syncretic Sufi and Advaita Vedanta poetry, the latter in the devotional bhakti tradition. The format of this poetry is the bayt, indicating significant influence from Arabic and Persian. The earliest known Sindhi poet of the Sufi tradition is Qazi Qadan (1493–1551). Other early poets were Shah Inat Rizvi (c. 1613–1701) and Shah Abdul Karim Bulri (1538–1623). These poets had a mystical bent that profoundly influenced Sindhi poetry for much of this period.^[24]

Another famous part of Medieval Sindhi literature is a wealth of folktales, adapted and readapted into verse by many bards at various times and possibly much older than their earliest literary attestations. These include romantic epics such as Sassui Punnhun, Sohni Mahiwal, Momal Rano, Noori Jam Tamachi, Lilan Chanesar, and others.^[27]

The greatest poet of Sindhi was Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai (1689/1690–1752), whose verses were compiled into the Shah Jo Risalo by his followers. While primarily Sufi, his verses also recount traditional Sindhi folktales and aspects of the cultural history of Sindh.^[24]

The first attested Sindhi translation of the Quran was done by Akhund Azaz Allah Muttalawi (1747–1824) and published in Gujarat in 1870. The first to appear in print was by Muhammad Siddiq in 1867.^[28]

In 1843, the British conquest of Sindh led the region to become part of the Bombay Presidency. Soon after, in 1848, Governor George Clerk established Sindhi as the official language in the province, removing the literary dominance of Persian. Sir Bartle Frere, the then commissioner of Sindh, issued orders on August 29, 1857, advising civil servants in Sindh to pass an examination in Sindhi. He also ordered the use of Sindhi in official documents.^[29] In 1868, the Bombay Presidency assigned Narayan Jagannath Vaidya to replace the Abjad used in Sindhi with the Khudabadi script. The script was decreed a standard script by the Bombay Presidency thus inciting anarchy in the Muslim majority region. A powerful unrest followed, after which Twelve Martial Laws were imposed by the British authorities. The granting of official status of Sindhi along with script reforms ushered in the development of modern Sindhi literature.

The first printed works in Sindhi were produced at the Muhammadi Press in Bombay beginning in 1867. These included Islamic stories set in verse by Muhammad Hashim Thattvi, one of the renowned religious scholars of Sindh.^[27]

The Partition of India in 1947 resulted in most Sindhi speakers ending up in the new state of Pakistan, commencing a push to establish a strong sub-national linguistic identity for Sindhi. This manifested in resistance to the imposition of Urdu and eventually Sindhi nationalism in the 1980s.^[30]

The language and literary style of contemporary Sindhi writings in Pakistan and India were noticeably diverging by the late 20th century; authors from the former country were borrowing extensively from Urdu, while those from the latter were highly influenced by Hindi.^[31]

Sindhi is the official language of the Pakistani province of Sindh^[32][3] and one of the scheduled languages of India, where it does not have any state-level status.^[33] Prior to the inception of Pakistan, Sindhi was the national language of Sindh.^{[34][35][36][37]}

Sindhi is additionally spoken by many members of the Sindhi diaspora, particularly in Malaysia, Oman, Singapore, UAE, USA and UK.

In Pakistan, Sindhi is the first language of 34.40 million people, or 14.6% of the country's population as of the 2023 census. 33.46 million of these are found in Sindh, where they account for 60% of the total population of the province.^[38] There are 0.55 million speakers in the province of Balochistan, especially in the Kacchi Plain.

2023 Census Statistics^[38]

State	Population
Pakistan	34,401,564
Sindh	33,462,299
Balochistan	555,198
Punjab	352,686
Islamabad	21,362
KPK	10,019

The Pakistan Sindh Assembly has ordered compulsory teaching of the Sindhi language in all private schools in Sindh.^[39] According to the Sindh Private Educational Institutions Form B (Regulations and Control) 2005 Rules, "All educational institutions are required to teach children the Sindhi language.^[40] Sindh Education and Literacy Minister, Syed Sardar Ali Shah, and Secretary of School Education, Qazi Shahid Pervaiz, have ordered the employment of Sindhi teachers in all private schools in Sindh so that this language can be easily and widely taught.^[41] Sindhi is taught in all provincial private schools that follow the Matric system and not the ones that follow the Cambridge system.^[42]

At the occasion of 'Mother Language Day' in 2023, the Sindh Assembly under Culture minister Sardar Ali Shah, passed a unanimous resolution to extend the use of language to primary level^[43] and increase the status of Sindhi as a national language^[44][45][46] of Pakistan.

There are many Sindhi language television channels broadcasting in Pakistan such as Time News, KTN, Sindh TV, Awaz Television Network, Mehran TV, and Dharti TV.

The Indian Government has legislated Sindhi as a scheduled language in India, making it an option for education. Despite lacking any state-level status, Sindhi is still a prominent minority language in the Indian states of Gujarat, Rajasthan and Maharashtra.^[47] In India, Sindhi mother tongue speakers were distributed in the following states:

2011 Census Statistics^[48][j]

State	Population
India	2,772,264
Gujarat	1,184,024
Maharashtra	723,748
Rajasthan	386,569
Madhya Pradesh	245,161
Chhattisgarh	93,424
Delhi (NCT)	31,177
Uttar Pradesh	28,952
Assam	19,646
Karnataka	16,954
Andhra Pradesh	11,299
Tamil Nadu	8,448
West Bengal	7,828
Uttarakhand	2,863
Odisha	2,338
Bihar	2,227
Jharkhand	1,701
Haryana	1,658
Kerala	1,251
Punjab	754
Goa	656
Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu	894
Meghalaya	236
Chandigarh	134
Puducherry	94
Nagaland	82
Himachal Pradesh	62
Tripura	30
Jammu and Kashmir	19
Andaman and Nicobar Islands	14
Arunachal Pradesh	12
Lakshadweep	7
Sikkim	2

In Malaysia, Indonesia, and Singapore (where Sindhi has no official status), ethnics Sindhis are largely shifting to English as their first language, excepting some monolingual first-generation immigrants and second-generation speakers who use Sindhi at home. Codeswitching of varying degrees is observed in some speakers, usually with English but also with Malay and Indonesian.^{[49][50][51][52]} Similar shift to English is found in the smaller Hong Kong Sindhi community.^[53]

Country	Population
Pakistan[38]	34,401,564
India[48]	2,772,264
United Arab Emirates[54]	102,000
United States[55]	6,299
Canada[56]	5,315
Singapore[57]	3,971

Sindhi has many dialects, and forms a dialect continuum at some places with neighboring languages such as Saraiki to the north and Gujarati to the south, but not with Marwari to the east.^[7] Some of the documented dialects of Sindhi are:^{[58][59][60][7][61]}

• Vicholi: The prestige dialect spoken around Hyderabad and central Sindh (the Vicholo region), on which the literary standard is based.
• Uttaradi: The dialect of northern Sindh (Uttaru, meaning "north"), with minor differences in Larkana, Shikarpur and in parts of Sukkur and Kandiaro.^[62]
• Lari: The dialect of southern Sindh (Lāṛu) spoken around areas like Karachi, Thatta, Sujawal, Tando Muhammad Khan and Badin districts.
• Siroli (also Siraiki, Ubheji): The dialect of northernmost Sindh (Siro, meaning "head").^[63] Spoken in smaller number all over Sindh but mainly in Jacobabad and Kashmore districts, it may be transitional with the Saraiki language of South Punjab^[64] and has variously been treated either as a dialect of Saraiki or as a dialect of Sindhi.^[65]
• Lasi: The dialect of Lasbela, Hub and Gwadar districts in Balochistan, closely related to Lari and Vicholi, and in contact with Balochi.
• Firaqi: The dialect of the Kachhi plains the north eastern districts of Balochistan, where it is referred to as Firaqi Sindhi or commonly just Sindhi.^[66][67]
• Thareli (also Tharechi): Spoken in the northeastern Thar desert of Sindh, but mainly spoken in the western part of Jaisalmer district of Rajasthan, India by many Sindhi Muslims.^[68][69]
• Sindhi Bhili: Spoken in Sindh by the Sindhi Meghwars and Bhils.^[70][71][72]

Furthermore, Kutchi and Jadgali are sometimes classified as dialects of Sindhi rather than independent languages.

Sindhi dialects Comparison^[73]

English	Vicholi	Lari	Uttaradi	Lasi	Kutchi[74]	Dhatki
I	Aao(n)	Aao(n)	Mā(n)	Ã	Aau(n)	Hu(n)
My	Muhnjo	Mujo	Mānjo/Māhjo	Mojo/Mājo	Mujo	Mānjo/Māhyo
You "Sin, plu" (formal)	Awha(n)/Awhee(n) Tawha(n)/Tawhee(n)	Aa(n)/Aei(n)	Taha(n)/Taa(n)/ Tahee(n)/Taee(n)	Awa(n)/Ai(n)	Aa(n)/Ai(n)	Awha/Ahee(n)/ Aween
To me	Mukhe	Muke	Mānkhe	Mukh	Muke	Mina
We	Asee(n)	Asee(n), Pān	Asā(n)	Asee(n)	Asee(n), Pān	Asee(n), Asā(n)
What	Chha/Kahirō	Kujjāro/Kujja	Chha/Shha	Chho	Kuro	Kee
Why	Chho	Ko	Chho/Shho	Chhela	Kolāi/Kurelāe	Kayla
How	Kiya(n)	Kei(n)	Kiya(n)		Kee(n)	Kiya(n)
No	Na, Kōna, Kōn	Nā(n), Kīna	Na, Kōna, Kāna, Kon, Kān	Nā(n), Ma	Nā	Nā, Ni, Ko, Kon, Ma
Legs (plural, fem)	Tangu(n), Jjanghu(n)	Tangu(n), Jjangu(n)	Tangā(n), Jjanghā(n)
Foot	Pair	Pair/Pagg/Pagulo	Pair	Pair	Pag	Pagg, Pair
Far	Pare	Ddoor	Pare/Parte	Ddor	Chhete	Ddor
Near	Vejhō	Vejo/Ōdō/Ōdirō/Ore	Vejhō/Vejhe/Orte	Ōddō	Wat, bājūme	Nerro
Good/Excellent	Sutho, Chaṅō	Khāso/Sutho/Thhāuko	Sutho, Bhalo, Chango	Khāsho	Khāso, Laat	Sutho, Phutro, Thhāuko
High	Utāho	Ucho	Mathe	Ucho	Ucho	Uncho
Silver	Rupo	Chādi/Rupo	Chāndi	Rupo	Rupo
Father	Piu	Pay/Abo/Aba/Ada	Pee/Babo/Pirhe(n)	Pe	Pe, Bapa, Ada
Wife	Joe/Gharwāri	Joe/Wani/Kuwār	Zaal/Gharwāri	Zaal	Vahu/Vau	Ddosi, Luggai
Man	Mardu	Māņu/Mārū/Mard /Murs/Musālu	Mānhu/Musālo/Bhāi /Kāko/Hamra	Mānhu	Māḍū/Mārū	Mārū
Woman	Aurat	Zāla/ōrat/ōlath	Māi/Ran	Zāla	Bāeḍi/Bāyaḍī
Child/Baby	Bbār/Ningar/Bbālak	Bbār/Ningar/Gabhur/ Bacho/Kako	Bbār/Bacho/Adro/ Phar (animal)	Gabhar	Bār/Gabhar
Daughter	Dhiu/Niyāni	Dia/Niyāni/Kañā	Dhee/Adri	Dhia	Dhi	Dikri
Sun	Siju	Sij, Sūrij	Sijhu	Siju	Sūraj	Sūraj
Sunlight		Kārro	Oosa		Tarko
Cat	Billi	Bili/Pusani	Billi	Phushini	Minni
Rain	Barsāt/Mee(n)h /Bārish	Varsāt/Mee(n)/Mai(n)	Barsāt/Mee(n)hu		Varsāt	Meh, Maiwla
And	Aēi(n)	Ãū(n)/Ãē(n)/Nē	Aēi(n)/Aū(n)/Aen	Ãē/Or	Nē/Anē	A'e(n)/Ān
Also	Pin/Bhi	Pin, Bee	Bu/Pun		Pin/Pan
Is	Āhe	Āye	Aa/Āhe/Hai	Āhe/Āye	Āye	Āhe/Āh/Āye/Hai
Fire	Bāhe	Bāē/āgg/jjērō	Bāhe/Bāh	Jjērō	Jirō/lagāņō/āg
Water	Pāņī	Pāņī/Jal	Pāņī	Pāņī	Pāņī/Jal	Pāņī
Where	Kithē	Kithē	Kithē, Kāthe, Kehda, Kāday, Kādah, Kidah, Kithrē	Kith	Kithē	Kith
Sleep	Nindr(a)	Nind(a)	Nindr(a)	Nind	Ninder	Oongh
Slap	Thaparr/Chammāt	Tārr	Chamātu/Chapātu/ Lapātu/Thapu
To Wash	Dhoain(u)	Dhun(u)	Dhoain(u)/Dhuan(u)/ Dhowan(u)			Dhuwan(u)/ Dhoon(u)
Will write (Masc)	Likhandum, Likhandus	Likhados	Likhdum, Likhdus	Likhdosī		Likhsā(n)
I Went	Aao(n) Vius	Aao(n) Vēs	Ma(n) Vayus (m)/ Vayas (f)	Ã viosī		Hu Gios

Sindhi has a relatively large inventory of both consonants and vowels compared to other Indo-Aryan languages.^[75] Sindhi has 46 consonant phonemes and 10 vowels.^[76] The consonant to vowel ratio is around average for the world's languages at 2.8.^[77] All plosives, affricates, nasals, the retroflex flap, and the lateral approximant /l/ have aspirated or breathy voiced counterparts. The language also features four implosives.

Sindhi consonants^[78]

		Labial		Dental/ alveolar		Retroflex		(Alveolo-) Palatal		Velar		Glottal
Nasal	plain		m م‎		n ن‎		ɳ ڻ‎		ɲ ڃ‎		ŋ ڱ‎
	breathy		mʱ مهہ‎		nʱ نهہ‎		ɳʱ ڻهہ‎
Stop/ Affricate	plain	p پ‎	b ب‎	t̪ ت‎	d̪ د‎	ʈ ٽ‎	ɖ ڊ‎	tɕ چ‎	dʑ ج‎	k ڪ‎	ɡ گ‎
	breathy	pʰ ڦ‎	bʱ ڀ‎	t̪ʰ ٿ‎	d̪ʱ ڌ‎	ʈʰ ٺ‎	ɖʱ ڍ‎	tɕʰ ڇ‎	dʑʱ جهہ‎	kʰ ک‎	ɡʱ گهہ‎
Implosive			ɓ ٻ‎		ɗ ڏ‎				ʄ ڄ‎		ɠ ڳ‎
Fricative		f ف‎		s س‎	z ز‎	ʂ ش‎				x خ‎	ɣ غ‎	h ھ ه‎
Approximant	plain		ʋ و‎		l ل‎				j ي‎
	breathy				lʱ لهہ‎
Rhotic	plain				r ر‎		ɽ ڙ‎
	breathy						ɽʱ ڙهہ‎

The retroflex consonants are apical postalveolar and do not involve curling back of the tip of the tongue,^[79] so they could be transcribed [t̠, t̠ʰ, d̠, d̠ʱ n̠ n̠ʱ ɾ̠ ɾ̠ʱ] in phonetic transcription. The affricates /tɕ, tɕʰ, dʑ, dʑʱ/ are laminal post-alveolars with a relatively short release. It is not clear if /ɲ/ is similar, or truly palatal.^[80] /ʋ/ is realized as labiovelar [w] or labiodental [ʋ] in free variation, but is not common, except before a stop.

	Front	Central	Back
Close	i		u
Near-close	ɪ		ʊ
Close-mid	e		o
Mid		ə
Open-mid	æ		ɔ
Open			ɑ

The vowels are modal length /i e æ ɑ ɔ o u/ and short /ɪ ʊ ə/. Consonants following short vowels are lengthened: /pət̪o/ [pət̪ˑoː] 'leaf' vs. /pɑt̪o/ [pɑːt̪oː] 'worn'.

Sindhi nouns distinguish two genders (masculine and feminine), two numbers (singular and plural), and five cases (nominative, vocative, oblique, ablative, and locative). This is a similar paradigm to Punjabi. Almost all Sindhi noun stems end in a vowel, except for some recent loanwords. The declension of a noun in Sindhi is largely determined from its grammatical gender and the final vowel (or if there is no final vowel). Generally, -o stems are masculine and -a stems are feminine, but the other final vowels can belong to either gender.

The different paradigms are listed below with examples.^[81] The ablative and locative cases are used with only some lexemes in the singular number and hence not listed, but predictably take the suffixes -ā̃ / -aū̃ / -ū̃ (ABL) and -i (LOC).

		SG			PL			Gloss
		NOM	VOC	OBL	NOM	VOC	OBL
M	I	ڇوڪِرو‎ chokiro	ڇوڪِرا‎ chokirā	ڇوڪِري‎ chokire	ڇوڪِرا‎ chokirā	ڇوڪِرا / ڇوڪِرَ‎ chokirā / chokira	ڇوڪِرَنِ‎ chokirani	boy
	II	ٻارُ‎ ɓāru	ٻارَ‎ ɓāra			ٻارو / ٻارَ‎ ɓāra / ɓāro	ٻارَنِ‎ ɓārani	child
	III	ساٿِي‎ sāthī		ساٿِيءَ‎ sāthīa	ساٿِي‎ sāthī	ساٿيئَرو‎ sāthīaro	ساٿيَنِ‎ sāthyani	companion
		رَھاڪُو‎ rahākū		رَھاڪُوءَ‎ rahākūa	رَھاڪُو‎ rahākū	رَھاڪُئو‎ rahākuo	رَھاڪُنِ‎ rahākuni	inhabitant
	IV	راجا‎ rājā			راجا / راجائتو ‎ rājā / rājāito		راجائُنِ ‎ rājāuni	king
		سيٺُ‎ seṭhu			سيٺَ ‎ seṭha		سيٺَنِ ‎ seṭhani	merchant
F	I	زالَ‎ zāla			زالُون‎ zālū̃		زالُنِ‎ zāluni	woman, wife
		سَسُ‎ sasu			سَسُون‎ sasū̃		سَسُنِ‎ sasuni	mother-in-law
	II	دَوا‎ davā			دَوائُون‎ davāū̃		دَوائُنِ‎ davāuni	medicine
		راتِ‎ rāti			راتيُون‎ rātyū̃		راتيُنِ‎ rātyuni	night
		هوٽَل‎ hoṭal			هوٽَلُون‎ hoṭalū̃		هوٽَلُنِ‎ hoṭaluni	hotel
	III	ڳَئُون‎ ɠaū̃		ڳَئُونَ‎ ɠaū̃a	ڳَئُون‎ ɠaū̃		ڳَئُونِ‎ ɠaūni	cow
	IV	نَدِي‎ nadī		نَدِيءَ‎ nadīa	نَديُون‎ nadyū̃		نَديُنِ‎ nadyuni	river

A few nouns representing familial relations take irregular declensions with an extension in -r- in the plural. These are the masculine nouns ڀاءُ‎ bhāu "brother", پِيءُ‎ pīu "father", and the feminine nouns ڌِيءَ‎ dhīa "daughter", نُونھَن‎ nū̃hã "daughter-in-law", ڀيڻَ‎ bheṇa "sister", ماءُ‎ māu "mother", and جوءِ‎ joi "wife".^[81]

	SG			PL			Gloss
	NOM	VOC	OBL	NOM	VOC	OBL
M	ڀاءُ‎ bhāu			ڀائُرُ / ڀائُرَ‎ bhāuru / bhāura	ڀائُرَ / ڀائُرو‎ bhāura / bhāuro	ڀائُرَنِ / ڀائُنِ‎ bhāurani / bhāuni	brother
F	ڌِيءَ / ڌِيءُ‎ dhīa / dhīu			ڌِيئَرُ / ڌِيئَرُون / ڌِيئُون‎ dhīaru / dhīarū̃ / dhīū̃		ڌِيئَرُنِ / ڌِيئُنِ‎ dhīaruni / dhīuni	daughter

Personal pronouns

	SG		PL
	1	2	1	2
NOM	مَان‎ / آئُون‎ mā̃ / āū̃	تُون‎ tū̃	اَسِين‎ asī̃	تَوِھِين‎ tavhī̃
OBL	مُون‎ mū̃	تو‎ to	اَسَان‎ asā̃	تَوِھَان‎ tavhā̃
GEN	مُنھِنجو‎ mũhinjo	تُنھِنجو‎ tũhinjo	—

Like other Indo-Aryan languages, Sindhi has first and second-person personal pronouns as well as several types of third-person proximal and distal demonstratives. These decline in the nominative and oblique cases. The genitive is a special form for the first and second-person singular, but formed as usual with the oblique and case marker جو jo for the rest. The personal pronouns are listed to the right.^[82][83]

The third-person pronouns are listed below. Besides the unmarked demonstratives, there are also "specific" and "present" demonstratives. In the nominative singular, the demonstratives are marked for gender. Some other pronouns which decline identically to ڪو‎ ko "someone" are ھَرڪو‎ har-ko "everyone", سَڀڪو‎ sabh-ko "all of them", جيڪو‎ je-ko "whoever" (relative), and تيڪو‎ te-ko "that one" (correlative).^[82]

Third-person pronouns

			Demonstrative							Interrogative	Relative	Correlative
			Unmarked		Specific		Present		Indefinite
			PROX	DIST	PROX	DIST	PROX	DIST
SG	NOM	M	ھِي‎ hī	ھُو‎ hū	اِھو‎ iho	اُھو‎ uho	اِجهو‎ ijho	اوجهو‎ ojho	ڪو‎ ko	ڪيرُ‎ keru	جو‎ jo	سو‎ so
		F	ھِيءَ‎ hīa	ھُوءَ‎ hūa	اِھَا‎ ihā	اُھَا‎ uhā	اِجَها‎ ijhā	اوجَها‎ ojhā	ڪَا‎ kā	ڪيرَ‎ kera	جَا‎ jā	سَا‎ sā
	OBL		ھِنَ‎ hina	ھُنَ‎ huna	اِنهين‎ inhẽ	اُنهين‎ unhẽ	—		ڪَنْھِن‎ kãhĩ		جَنْھِن‎ jãhĩ	تَنْھِن‎ tãhĩ
PL	NOM		ھِي‎ hī	ھُو‎ hū	اِھي‎ ihe	اُھي‎ uhe	اِجهي‎ ijhe	اوجهي‎ ojhe	ڪي‎ ke	ڪيرَ‎ kera	جي‎ je	سي‎ se
	OBL		ھِنَنِ‎ hinani	ھُنَنِ‎ hunani	اِنَهنِ‎ inhani	اُنَهنِ‎ unhani	—		ڪِنِ‎ kini		جِنِ‎ jini	تنِ‎ tini

Num. Cardinal 0 ٻُڙِي‎ ɓuṛi 1 هِڪُ‎ hiku 2 ٻَہ‎ ɓa 3 ٽِي‎ ṭī 4 چَارِ‎ cāri 5 پَنج‎ pañja 6 ڇَھَہ‎ chaha 7 سَتَ‎ sata 8 اَٺَ‎ aṭha 9 نَوَ‎ nava

Num. Cardinal 10 ڏَھَہ‎ ɗaha 11 يَارَنھَن‎ yārãhã 12 ٻَارَھَن‎ ɓārahã 13 تيرَھَن‎ terahã 14 چوڏَھَن‎ coɗahã 15 پَندرَھَن‎ pandrahã 16 سورَھَن‎ sorahã 17 سَترَھَن‎ satrahã 18 اَرِڙَھَن / اَٺَارَھَن‎ ariṛahã / aṭhārahã 19 اُڻوِيھَہ‎ uṇvīha

Most nominal relations (e.g. the semantic role of a nominal as an argument to a verb) are indicated using postpositions, which follow a noun in the oblique case. The subject of the verb takes the bare oblique case, while the object may be in nominative case or in oblique case and followed by the accusative case marker کي khe.^[84]

The postpositions are divided into case markers, which directly follow the noun, and complex postpositions, which combine with a case marker (usually the genitive جو jo).

The case markers are listed below.^[84]: 399

The postpositions with the suffix -o decline in gender and number to agree with their governor, e.g. ڇوڪِرو جو پِيءُ‎ chokiro j-o pīu "the boy's father" but ڇوڪِر جِي مَاءُ‎ chokiro j-ī māu "the boy's mother".

Case markers

Case	Marker	Example	English
Nominative	—	ڇوڪِرو‎ chokiro	the boy
Accusative Dative	کي‎ khe	ڇوڪِري کي‎ chokire khe	the boy to the boy
Genitive	جو‎ j-o	ڇوڪِري جو‎ chokire jo	of the boy
	سَندو‎ sand-o	ڇوڪِري سَندو‎ chokire sando
Sociative	سُڌو‎ sudh-o	ڇوڪِري سُڌو‎ chokire sudho	along with the boy
Comitative Instrumental	سَان‎ sā̃	ڇوڪِري سَان‎ chokire sā̃	with the boy
	سَاڻُ‎ sāṇu	ڇوڪِري سَاڻُ‎ chokire sāṇu
Locative	۾‎ mẽ	ڇوڪِري ۾‎ chokire mẽ	in the boy
	مَنجِهہ‎ manjhi	ڇوڪِري مَنجِهہ‎ chokire manjhi
Adessive	تي‎ te	ڇوڪِري تي‎ chokire te	on the boy
	وَٽِ‎ vaṭi	ڇوڪِري وَٽِ‎ chokire vaṭi	near the boy the boy has...
Orientative	ڏَانھَن‎ ḍā̃hã	ڇوڪِري ڏَانھَن‎ chokire ḍā̃hã	towards the boy
Terminative	تَائيِن‎ tāī̃	ڇوڪِري تَائيِن‎ chokire tāī̃	up to the boy
Benefactive	ل‎اءِ lāi	ڇوڪِري لاءِ‎ chokire lāi	for the boy
Semblative	وَانگُرُ‎ vānguru	ڇوڪِري وَانگُرُ‎ chokire vānguru	like the boy
	جَھْڙو‎ jahṛ-o	ڇوڪِري جَھْڙو‎ chokire jahṛo

There are several ablative case markers formed from the spatial postpositions and the ablative ending -ā̃. These indicate complex motion such as "from inside of".^[84]: 400

Ablative case markers

Marker	Example	English
کَان‎ khā̃	ڇوڪِري کَان‎ chokire khā̃	from the boy
مَان‎ mā̃	ڇوڪِري مَان‎ chokire mā̃	from inside the boy
تَان‎ tā̃	ڇوڪِري تَان‎ chokire tā̃	from upon the boy
ڏَانھَان‎ ḍā̃hā̃	ڇوڪِري ڏَانھَان‎ chokire ḍā̃hā̃	from the direction of the boy

Finally, some case markers are found in medieval Sindhi literature and/or modern poetic Sindhi, and otherwise not used in standard speech.

Obsolete/rare case markers

Case	Marker	Example	English
Accusative Adessive	ڪَني‎ kane	ڇوڪِري ڪَني‎ chokire kane	to/near the boy

The complex postpositions are formed with a case marker, usually the genitive but sometimes the ablative. Many are listed below.^[84]: 405

Sindhi	Transliteration	Explanation
جي اَڳيَان‎	je aɠyā̃	"ahead of, before"; apudessive
جي اَندَرِ‎	je andari	"inside of"; inessive
جي بَدِرَان‎	je badirā̃	"instead of, in place of"
جي بَرَابَر‎	je barābar	"equal to"
جي ٻَاھَرَان‎	je ɓāharā̃	"outside of"
کَان ٻَاھَرِ‎	khā̃ ɓāhari
جي باري ۾‎	je bāre mẽ	"about, concerning"
جي چَوڌَارِي‎	je caudhārī	"around"
جي ھيٺَان‎	je heṭhā̃	"below, under"
جي ڪَري‎	je kare	"for, on account of"
جي لَاءِ‎	je lāi	"for"
جي مَٿَان‎	je mathā̃	"above, on top of, upon"
کَان پَري‎	khā̃ pare	"far from"
جي پَارِ‎	je pāri	"across, on the other side of"
جي پَاسي‎	je pāse	"on the side of, near"
کَان پوءِ‎	khā̃ poi	"after"
جي پُٺيَان‎	je puṭhyā̃	"behind"
جي سَامهون‎	je sāmhõ	"in front of, facing"
کَان سِوَاءِ‎	khā̃ sivāi	"besides, apart from"
جي وَاسطي‎	je vāste	"for the sake of, on account of"
جي ويجهو‎	je vejho	"near"; adessive
جي وِچِ ۾‎	je vici mẽ	"between, among"
جي خَاطِرِ‎	je xātiri	"for the sake of"
جي خِلَافِ‎	je xilāfi	"against"
جي ذَرِيعي‎	je zarī'e	"via, through"; perlative

According to historian Nabi Bux Baloch, most Sindhi vocabulary is from ancient Sanskrit. However, owing to the influence of the Persian language over the subcontinent, Sindhi has adapted many words from Persian and Arabic. It has also borrowed from English and Hindustani. Today, Sindhi in Pakistan is slightly influenced by Urdu^{[citation needed]}, with more borrowed Perso-Arabic elements, while Sindhi in India is influenced by Hindi^{[citation needed]}, with more borrowed tatsam Sanskrit elements.^[85]

Sindhis in Pakistan use a version of the Perso-Arabic script with new letters adapted to Sindhi phonology, while in India a greater variety of scripts are in use, including Devanagari, Khudabadi, Khojki, and Gurmukhi.^[86] Perso-Arabic for Sindhi was also made digitally accessible relatively earlier.^[87]

The earliest attested records in Sindhi are from the 15th century.^[31] Before the standardisation of Sindhi orthography, numerous forms of Devanagari and Laṇḍā scripts were used for trading. For literary and religious purposes, a Perso-Arabic script developed by Abul-Hasan as-Sindi and Gurmukhi (a subset of Laṇḍā) were used. Another two scripts, Khudabadi and Shikarpuri, were reforms of the Landa script.^[88][89] During British rule in the late 19th century, the Perso-Arabic script was decreed standard over Devanagari.^[90]

Sindhi alphabet
ا ب ٻ ڀ پ ت ٿ ٽ ٺ ث ج ڄ جهہ ڃ چ ڇ ح خ د ڌ ڏ ڊ ڍ ذ ر ڙ ز س ش ص ض ط ظ ع غ ف ڦ ق ڪ ک گ ڳ گهہ ڱ ل م ن ڻ و ھ ء ي
Extended Perso-Arabic script
History Transliteration Diacritics Hamza Numerals Numeration
v t e

During the British Raj, a variant of the Persian alphabet was adopted for Sindhi in the 19th century. The script is used in Pakistan and India today. It has a total of 52 letters, augmenting the Persian with digraphs and eighteen new letters (ڄ ٺ ٽ ٿ ڀ ٻ ڙ ڍ ڊ ڏ ڌ ڇ ڃ ڦ ڻ ڱ ڳ ڪ‎) for sounds particular to Sindhi and other Indo-Aryan languages. Some letters that are distinguished in Arabic or Persian are homophones in Sindhi.

Below table presents Sindhi Perso-Arabic alphabet. Letters shaded in yellow are solely used in writing of loanwords, and the phoneme they represent are also represented by other letters in the alphabet. Letters and digraphs shaded in green aren't usually considered as part of the base alphabet. They are either commonly used digraphs representing aspirated consonants, or are ligatures serving a grammatical function. These ligatures include the ۽‎, which is pronounced as [ãĩ̯] and represents and, and the ۾‎, which is pronounced as [mẽ] and it creates a locative relationship between words.

Sindhi alphabet

Perso-Arabic [IPA]	ا‎ [∅]/[ʔ]/[aː]	ب‎ [b]	ٻ‎ [ɓ]	ڀ‎ [bʱ]	ت‎ [t]	ٿ‎ [tʰ]
Perso-Arabic [IPA]	ٽ‎ [ʈ]	ٺ‎ [ʈʰ]	ث‎ [s]	پ‎ [p]	ج‎ [d͡ʑ]	ڄ‎ [ʄ]
Perso-Arabic [IPA]	جهہ‎ [d͡ʑʰ]	ڃ‎ [ɲ]	چ‎ [t͡ɕ]	ڇ‎ [t͡ɕʰ]	ح‎ [h]	خ‎ [x]
Perso-Arabic [IPA]	د‎ [d]	ڌ‎ [dʱ]	ڏ‎ [ɗ]	ڊ‎ [ɖ]	ڍ‎ [ɖʱ]	ذ‎ [z]
Perso-Arabic [IPA]	ر‎ [r]	ڙ‎ [ɽ]	ڙهہ‎ [ɽʰ]	ز‎ [z]	ژ‎ [ʒ]	س‎ [s]
Perso-Arabic [IPA]	ش‎ [ʂ]	ص‎ [s]	ض‎ [z]	ط‎ [t]	ظ‎ [z]	ع‎ [ɑː]/[oː]/[eː]/[ʔ]/[∅]
Perso-Arabic [IPA]	غ‎ [ɣ]	ف‎ [f]	ڦ‎ [pʰ]	ق‎ [q]	ڪ‎ [k]	ک‎ [kʰ]
Perso-Arabic [IPA]	گ‎ [ɡ]	ڳ‎ [ɠ]	گهہ‎ [ɡʱ]	ڱ‎ [ŋ]	ل‎ [l]	لهہ‎ [lʱ]
Perso-Arabic [IPA]	م‎ [m]	مهہ‎ [mʰ]	ن‎ [n]/[◌̃]	نهہ‎ [nʰ]	ڻ‎ [ɳ]	ڻهہ‎ [ɳʰ]
Perso-Arabic [IPA]	و‎ [ʋ]/[ʊ]/[oː]/[ɔː]/[uː]	ھ‎ [h]	هـ ه‎ [h]	ـہ ہ‎ [ə]/[əʰ]/[∅]	ء‎ [ʔ]/[∅]	ي‎ [j]/[iː]
Perso-Arabic [IPA]	۽‎ [ãĩ̯]	۾‎ [mẽ]

The orthography of the letter hāʾ in Sindhi, especially as it comes to typing as opposed to handwriting, has been a source of confusion for many. Especially because whereas in Arabic and Persian, there exists one single letter for hāʾ, in Urdu, the letter has diverged into two distinct variants: gol he ("round he") and do-cašmi he ("two-eyed he"). The former is written is written round and zigzagged as "ہـ ـہـ ـہ ہ", and can impart the "h" (/ɦ/) sound anywhere in a word, or the long "a" or the "e" vowels (/ɑː/ or /eː/) at the end of a word. The latter is written in Arabic Naskh style (as a loop) (ھ) , in order to be used in digraphs and to create the aspirate consonants.

For most aspirated consonants, Sindhi relies on unique letters as opposed to the Urdu practice of digraphs. However, this doesn't apply to all aspirated consonants. Some are still written as digraphs. The letter hāʾ is also used in Sindhi to represent the sound [h] in native Sindhi words, in Arabic and Persian loanwords, and to represent vowels (/ə/ or /əʰ/) at the end of the word. The notations and conventions in Sindhi are different from either Persian or Arabic and from Urdu. Given the variety of the types of hāʾ across these languages for which Unicode characters have been designed, in order for the letters to be displayed correctly when typing, a correct and consistent convention needs to be followed. The following table will present these in detail.^[91][92]

Unicode	Letter or Digraphs				IPA	Note	Examples
	Final	Medial	Initial	Isolated
U+06BE	ـھ‎	ـھـ‎	ھـ‎	ھ‎	[h]		دوھَ⹁ ھُو⹁ مھينن⹁ ويھُ‎
U+0647	ـه‎	ـهـ‎	هـ‎	ه‎	[h]	Used for borrowed words	وحدهُ لا⹁ والله‎
U+062C + U+0647	ـجهہ‎	ـجهـ‎	جهـ‎	جهہ‎	[d͡ʑʰ]	In isolated and final positions, an extra hāʾ ـہ‎ (U+06C1) is added	ٻاجَهہ⹁ اُجِهي⹁ منجهان⹁ ڪُجهہ‎
U+06AF + U+0647	ـگهہ‎	ـگهـ‎	گهـ‎	گهہ‎	[ɡʱ]	In isolated and final positions, an extra hāʾ ـہ‎ (U+06C1) is added	گهہ⹁ گهوٽُ⹁ گهڻگُهرون⹁ سگهہ‎
U+0647	ـهہ‎	ـهـ‎	-	-	[◌ʰ]	Forming part of digraph for representation of other aspirated consonants ([ɽʰ], [lʱ], [mʰ], [nʰ], [ɳʰ]). In isolated and final positions, an extra hāʾ ـہ‎ (U+06C1) is added	ٻنهي⹁ ٿالهہ‎
U+06C1	ـہ‎	-	-	ہ‎	[ə] / [əʰ] / [∅]		نہ‎

The punctuation of Sindhi Perso-Arabic script differs slightly from that of Urdu, Persian, and Arabic. Namely, instead of using the typical inverted comma (،‎ [U+060C]) common in these mentioned alphabet, a reversed comma (⹁‎ [U+2E41]) is used. Although many documents do indeed incorrectly use Urdu punctuations.^[93]

Comparison of Punctuations

	Full Stop	Comma	‌ Semicolon
Sindhi	.‎	⹁‎	⁏‎
Urdu	۔‎	،‎	؛‎
Persian/Arabic	.‎	،‎	؛‎

In India, the Devanagari script is also used to write Sindhi.^[94] A modern version was introduced by the government of India in 1948; however, it did not gain full acceptance, so both the Sindhi-Arabic and Devanagari scripts are used. In India, a person may write a Sindhi language paper for a Civil Services Examination in either script.^[95] Devanagari was seen as the most practical option for Sindhi language in India.^[1] Diacritical bars below the letter are used to mark implosive consonants, and dots called nukta are used to form other additional consonants.

अ	आ	इ	ई	उ	ऊ	ए	ऐ	ओ	औ
ə	a	ɪ	i	ʊ	uː	e	ɛ	o	ɔ
क	ख	ख़	ग	ॻ	ग़		घ		ङ
k	kʰ	x	ɡ	ɠ	ɣ		ɡʱ		ŋ
च	छ		ज	ॼ	ज़		झ		ञ
t͡ɕ	t͡ɕʰ		d͡ʑʰ	ʄ	z		d͡ʑ		ɲ
ट	ठ		ड	ॾ	ड़		ढ	ढ़	ण
ʈ	ʈʰ		ɖ	ɗ	ɽ		ɖʱ	ɽʱ	ɳ
त	थ		द				ध		न
t	tʰ		d				dʱ		n
प	फ	फ़	ब	ॿ			भ		म
p	pʰ	f	b	ɓ			bʱ		m
य	र	ल	व
j	r	l	ʋ
श	ष	स	ह
ʂ	ʂ	s	h

Laṇḍā-based scripts, such as Gurmukhi, Khojki, and the Khudabadi script were used historically to write Sindhi.

Khudabadi or Sindhi
ISO 15924
ISO 15924	Sind (318), ​Khudawadi, Sindhi
Unicode
Unicode alias	Khudawadi
Unicode range	U+112B0–U+112FF

The Khudabadi alphabet was invented in 1550 CE, and was used alongside other scripts by the Hindu community until the colonial era, where the sole usage of the Arabic script for official purposes was legislated.

The script continued to be used on a smaller scale by the trader community until the Partition of India in 1947.^[96]

ə	a	ɪ	i	ʊ	uː	e	ɛ	o	ɔ
k	kʰ		ɡ	ɠ			ɡʱ		ŋ
c	cʰ		ɟ	ʄ			ɟʱ		ɲ
ʈ	ʈʰ		ɖ	ɗ			ɽ	ṛ	ɳ
t	tʰ		d				dʱ		n
p	pʰ	f	b	ɓ			bʱ		m
j	r	l	ʋ
ʂ		s	h

Khojki was employed primarily to record Muslim Shia Ismaili religious literature, as well as literature for a few secret Shia Muslim sects.^{[94] [97]}

The Gurmukhi script was also used to write Sindhi, mainly in India by Hindus.^[96][94]

The Sindhi-Roman script or Roman-Sindhi script is the contemporary Sindhi script usually used by the Sindhis when texting messages on their mobile phones.^[98][99]

In 1972, an bill was passed by the provincial assembly of Sindh which saw Sindhi, given official status thus becoming the first provincial language in Pakistan to have its own official status.

• Sindhi language was made the official language of Sindh according to Language Bill.
• All Educational institutes in Sindh are mandated to teach Sindhi as per the bill.

By 2001, Abdul-Majid Bhurgri^{[failed verification]} had coordinated with Microsoft to develop Unicode-based Software in the form of the Perso-Arabic Sindhi script which afterwards became the basis for the communicated use by Sindhi speakers around the world.^[100] In 2016, Google introduced the first automated translator for Sindhi language.^[101][102] Later on in 2023 an offline support was introduced by Google Translate.^[103][104] Which was followed by Microsoft Translator strengthening support in May of same year.^[105][106]

In June 2014, the Khudabadi script of the Sindhi language was added to Unicode, However as of now the script currently has no proper rendering support to view it in unsupported devices.

• 1972 Sindhi Language Bill
• Institute of Sindhology
• Sindhi Transliteration
• Languages of India
• Languages of Pakistan
• Languages with official status in India
• List of Sindhi-language films
• Provincial languages of Pakistan
• Sindhi literature
• Sindhi poetry

• Sindhi Language Authority
• Sindhi Dictionary
• All about Sindhi language and culture at the Wayback Machine (archived August 31, 2015)
• Mewaram's 1910 Sindhi-English dictionary